'We have seriously underestimated the Russians, the extent of the country and the treachery of the climate'.

Colonel General Heinz Guderian, November 1941.

Russia

With the German invasion of Russia only a few weeks old, it soon become clear to both the fighting men and their commanders, that this campaign would be considerably more difficult than previous ones. This was not only due to the stubborn and tenacious nature of the Russian defence, but also to a number of other factors, which were unique to Russia itself.

Terrain

Russia's many unique terrain variations caused innumerable problems for the advancing German forces. The main physical obstacles were its many rivers. Most of the major rivers in Russia flow from north to south, forming a series of natural barriers to an army advancing from west to east. The rivers also become wider and deeper the further you progress east. They are fed by numerous tributaries, which in themselves presented further difficulties. They are also prone to heavy flooding during the spring thaw and autumn wet seasons.

The Berezina River

The Berezina River, flows for 380 miles (610km). It rises in Belarus and flows generally south past Borisov and Bobruysk into the Dneper River. It is navigable for most of its length.

The Bug River

The Bug River flows for 480 miles (770km), rising in the Volhynian-Podolian hills in the western Ukraine. It flows north along the Polish-Ukrainian and Polish-Belarussian borders past Brest and then northwest through Poland to join the Vistula River near Warsaw. It is linked with the Dnepr by the Dnepr-Bug Canal via the Pina River and with the Niemen by the Augustov Canal via the Narva River. The Bug is also known as the Western Bug.

The Daugava River

The Daugava or Western Dvina is a river rising in the Valdai Hills flowing through Russia and Belarus, to drain into the Gulf of Riga, an arm of the Baltic Sea at Riga in Latvia. The total length of the river is 633 miles (1020km). It is connected by canal with the Berezina and Dnepr rivers.

The Dnepr River

The Dnepr River flows for 1,430 miles (2,300km) through Belarus and the Ukraine. One of the longest rivers in Europe, it rises in the Valdai Hills, west of Moscow. It flows south through Belarus past Smolensk and Mogilev. It then travels through the Ukraine, past Kiev, Cherkasy, Kremenchug, Dneprpetrovsk, Zaporizhya, Nikopol, and Kherson into the Black Sea. Between Kremenchug and Nikopol the Dneper makes a vast bend to the east. Since the construction in 1932 of the Dniprohes dam the Dnepr is navigable for virtually its entire course. Its tributaries include the Berezina, the Pripyat, and the Inhulets from the west and the Sozh, the Desna, the Orel, and the Samara from the east. The Dnepr is linked by canal with the Western Bug.

The Dniester River

The river Dniester, flows for 840 miles (1,352 km). It rises in the Ukraine, near the border with Poland, and flows toward the Black Sea. For a short while it marks the border of the Ukraine. It leaves this region and then flows through the Ukraine to the Black Sea. The Dniester, which rises in the Carpathians, within the territory of Galicia, becomes navigable at Sambor, and receives on the right the Stryj, the Swica, the Lomnica and the Bystrzyca, and on the left the Lipa, the Strypa, the Sereth and the Zbrucz.

The Don River

The Don is one of the major rivers of Russia. It rises near Tula, southeast of Moscow, and flows for a distance of about 1,220 miles (1,950km) to the Sea of Azov. From its source, the river first flows southeast to Voronezh, then southwest to its mouth. The main city on the river is Rostov on Don, its main tributary the Donets. At its easternmost point, the Don comes near the Volga. The two rivers are connected by the Volga-Don Canal whose length is 65 miles (105km).

The Donets River

The Donets River rises in the Central Russian Upland, flowing south and then east through Russia and Ukraine for some 650 miles (1,050km). It rises northeast of Belgorod, which it then passes and flows generally southeast along the northern Donets Basin industrial region to join the Don River below Konstantinovsk.

The Kuban River

The Kuban River in southwestern Russia flows for 563 miles (906km) in length. It rises from glaciers on Mount Elbrus in the Greater Caucasus and flows north through narrow gorges, with many rapids, to the Stavropol Upland, where it turns westward in a broad, marshy floodplain to enter the Sea of Azov. Much of its water is diverted for irrigation. The river is navigable for most of its length.

The Moskva River

The Moskva River, also known as the Moscow River, is a tributary of the Oka River in the Volga basin. Rising in the Smolensk-Moscow Upland, the river flows 312 miles (502 km) in a southeasterly direction via Voskresensk, Kolomna, and Mozhaysk. Moscow is also situated on the river and it forms an important source of the cities water supply.

The Narva River

The Narva river, which drains into Lake Peipus, flows for 50 miles (80 km). It travels northeast past the city of Narva, into the Gulf of Finland. It also forms the border between Estonia and Russia.

The Neman River

The River Neman is a major Eastern European River rising in Belarus, flowing 937 km through Lithuania before draining into the Baltic Sea near Klaipeda. Part of the Neman served as the border between northern East Prussia and Lithuania. The largest tributary is the River Neris. The largest cities on the Neman are Hrodna in Belarus and Kaunas in Lithuania.

The Neva River

The Neva River is 47 miles (74 km) long, flowing west from Lake Ladoga to the Gulf of Finland at the city of Leningrad. It also links lakes Onega and Ilmen and its tributaries include the Svir and Volkhov Rivers. It usually freezes from late December to early April.

The Pripyat River

The Pripyat river, flows for 440 miles (710km) long. It rises northwest of Kovel, in the northern Ukraine, near the Polish border. It then flows generally east through the Pripyat Marshes and into the Dneper River. Navigable below Pinsk, it is connected by canals with the Western Bug River (forming part of the Vistula-Dnepr waterway) and with the Neman River.

The Volga River

The Volga River is the longest river in Europe, flowing for 2,300 miles (3,700km). It originates at an elevation of only 740 feet (225m) in the Valdai Hills northwest of Moscow, where it connects with the Rybinsk Reservoir. The river flows east past Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan. From there it turns south past Samara and Stalingrad. Since the initial elevation is so low, the river flows slowly, finally entering the Caspian Sea below sea level, in a wide delta near Astrakhan. Canals connect the river with the Baltic Sea via the Rybinsk Reservoir. The Moscow Canal connects it with the Moskva River and the Oka River. At Stalingrad, it links through canals, with the Don River and Black Sea. Numerous dams (bypassed by locks) provide hydroelectricity and water for irrigation. The river, known in Russian folklore as "Mother Volga", has played an incalculable part in the life of the Russian people.

Pripyat Marshes

The Pripyat Marshes are a forested, swampy area of 38,000sq miles (98,400sq km) extending along the Pripyat River. Its tributaries stretch from Brest in the west to Mogilev in the northeast and Kiev in the southeast. With a dense network of rivers, lakes, and canals, the marshes are largely coextensive with the Polesye lowland. The marshes are also called the Pinsk Marshes.

The Caucasus Mountains

The Caucasus is a land of high grasslands and rolling mountains. The Caucasus Mountains, which marks the point where Europe and Asia meet, stretch about 700 miles (about 1,127km) between the Black and Caspian seas. Almost equal in size and height to the Alps, the Caucasus range includes several peaks that rise more than 16,404 feet (5000m). The main watershed of the Caucasus is considered to be the boundary between Europe and Asia. The range is divided into the Great Caucasus and Trans-Caucasus. The pride of the Caucasus is the double-headed Mount Elbrus. This gentle-sloped mountain in the centre of the Caucasus Range marks the highest point of Europe at 18,510ft (5642m).

The Valdai Hills

The Valdai Hills are an upland region running north south, about midway between Leningrad and Moscow. The hills are a northward extension of the Central Russian Upland and reach a height, near Vyshny Volochok, of 1125 feet (343 m). The region forms the watershed of the upper Volga, the western Dvina, and the Dnepr rivers and also of the rivers that flow into Lake Ilmen. Numerous glacial lakes are found there, among them, Lake Seliger is the largest.

Another unique terrain feature was Russia's vast forests. These huge areas of dense forest were impassable to vehicles and often also on foot. German forces were loath to enter and clear these areas and they allowed partisans and stragglers to remain a constant problem in the German rear areas.

Scale

The sheer geographical size of Russia had a debilitating effect on German operations, both physically and psychologically. Russia's vast depth and breadth, 635 miles (950km) from the Prussian border to Moscow and 1865 miles (2800km) from Murmansk in the north to the Black Sea in the south, swallowed up the German forces. This huge area, not only caused a debilitating dispersion of forces, but also led to an impossibly overstretched line of supply and communication as the German forces advanced.
Further more the German soldier found it an unnerving and depressing experience. They had never seen such a vast landscape and could often endure days of forced marches, without ever coming across a town or village, through an endless landscape of cornfields and forests that stretched away to the horizon.

Climate

The effects of climate in Russia had a profound effect on the German army throughout their campaign on the Eastern Front. It was wholly unprepared for the harsh variety of climatic change it would face.
The initial problems the German Army faced were caused by the scorching Russian summer. The Russian roads baked hard by the sun, crumbled under the weight of the German advance, turning to dust, which clogged the moving parts of vehicles and weapons. Dust filters were eventually fitted to most vehicles to help prevent these problems. The German infantry, enduring forced marches of up to 35 miles a day, were doing so in temperatures of up to 30°C. Retreating Russian forces often poisoned water supplies so dehydration also became a problem. The heat also brought with it the risk of diseases such as malaria, dysentery, colic and bowel inflammation.
However these inconveniences were nothing when compared to those faced once the autumn rains arrived. During this period, known as rasputitsa, the rains, which usually began in October and lasted for a month, turned the roads into bottomless quagmires thick with mud. Wheeled vehicles and horses were stuck fast and the German panzers, with their narrow tracks, had difficulty moving. Everything ground to a halt and any movement during this period was virtually impossible. Hundreds of miles of corduroy road had to be built during the muddy seasons in order to move up supplies and heavy equipment. The native Panje horse and wagon became indispensable, able to operate in all but the worst conditions.
The muds of the autumn were swiftly followed by the onset of the harsh Russian winter. The winter of 1941 was the worst in over a hundred years and those that followed were little better. The first snows usually arrived towards the end of October and temperatures dropped rapidly. Snowfall was the heaviest in the northern regions, lasting for up to six months, with temperatures as low as -55°C. Further south, the snowfall was less severe and lasted only four months. Streams and even major rivers froze solid for months at a time, to such an extent that vehicles were able to cross and in one case a rail line was laid across the Dnepr River to help supply the German 6th Army engaged in fighting east of the river.
The Germans unused to such conditions and without any suitable clothing, quickly succumbed to ill health. Frostbite was rife, causing almost as many casualties as combat. Hot food was a rare luxury and washing was an impossibility. Lice infestations were the norm, tormenting the men who gradually learned to put up with them. Other more severe illnesses, such as respiratory diseases, cystitis and dysentery often occurred. The length of sentry duties had to be shortened as men who had fallen asleep through exhaustion were simply found frozen to death. In addition to the difficulties the numbing cold imposed on the men, their equipment fared little better. Weapon breeches had to be left open to prevent them freezing shut, firing pins shattered and weapons had to be kept completely free of oil to prevent it freezing. Artillery and AT ammunition, coated in grease which froze solid, had to be scraped clean before use. Recoil mechanisms froze solid even when left covered and had to be warmed before use. Vehicles were also affected, with no cold resistant greases, oils or lubricants available, fuel tanks, gearboxes and radiators froze solid. Vehicles either had to be left running overnight or small fires lit to warm the affected parts. In some cases vehicles and artillery pieces simply froze to the ground and became immovable. Again the Panje horse and sleigh became the universal means of transportation when motor vehicles were incapacitated and roads were snowbound.
Following the winter came the spring thaw, which usually arrived in March or April. The rapid melting of the winter snows saw widespread flooding, raised river levels and a return to the muddy conditions of autumn.

Infrastructure

The lack of road and rail infrastructure in Russia severely hampered German mobility. The German Army was forced to improvise in order improve the situation. A lack of hard surfaced, all weather roads restricted movement. Corduroy roads were the most important static improvisation of the entire Russian campaign and many operations in swampy forests and in the mud of northern and central Russia were feasible only because of the construction of such roads. Hundreds of miles of corduroy road had to be built or repaired during the muddy seasons in order to move up supplies and heavy equipment. These roads were constructed by placing several layers of logs together lashed with wire and topped with a layer of sand or rubble. Corduroy roads had a detrimental effect on the speed of movements since they slowed down traffic.
In European Russia, temporary bridges were built almost exclusively of wood because iron and steel were scarce. In general, the first construction was a wooden emergency bridge, which was not secure against the danger of floods. Later these bridges were usually replaced by a permanent structure above flood level. Whenever possible, attempts were made to construct double track bridges. GHQ engineers, bridge-construction engineers, or ordinary construction Battalions, were usually employed for the building of the first temporary bridges. The local civilian population served as auxiliaries and were often paid for their services.
In October 1940, the German railways were given orders to prepare and expand the existing rail network in the east for a military campaign against Russia. The goal was to double the existing rail transportation capacity and 30,000 German and Polish railway employees were enlisted to carry out the program. As the Germans advanced into Russia they recruited Russian rail workers to assist in the operation of the rail network.
The main problem facing the Germans was that the Russian rail network was of a wider gauge and had to be converted back to the standard German gauge. The rail conversion efforts were completed relatively quickly. In many cases, the Germans only had to remove one of the rails and move it closer in. However, to add to the problems, much of the rail network was poorly constructed and rail bridges were either unsuitable or had been destroyed by the retreating Russian forces.
The main east-west routes which the Germans needed to convert were: